TOLERANCE OF ONLINE HARASSMENT IN ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS: ANALYZING ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21134/haaj.v21i2.568Keywords:
Online harassment, myths, gender violence, romantic love, sexismAbstract
Aim. The main goal of the present study is to analyze the relationship between tolerance of online harassment in romantic relationships (OHRR) and the following variables that have been traditionally studied in research on gender-based violence (GBV): ambivalent sexism, and myths of romantic love and GBV. Additionally, sex-based differences among all the variables were analyzed. Method. 390 university students (M = 20.76; SD = 4.83) voluntarily completed an anonymous questionnaire. Results. Results revealed a positive correlation between OHRR and the other variables. Regarding sex-based differences, male respondents showed stronger sexist beliefs, greater internalization of the myths about romantic love and GBV, and higher tolerance of OHRR than did the female respondents. Conclusions. Given the social relevance of the topic and the results, it´s recommended to address these issues in academic and prevention programs for university students and offer several suggestions for future studies.
Downloads
References
Abrams, D., Viki, G. T., Masser, B., & Bohner, G. (2003). Perceptions of stranger and acquaintance rape: The role of benevolent and hostile sexism in victim blame and rape proclivity. Journal of personality and social psychology, 84(1), 111-125. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.111
Alberdi, I., & Matas, N. (2002). La violencia doméstica: Informe sobre los malos tratos a mujeres en España. Fundación “La Caixa”.
Allport, G. W. (1979). The nature of prejudice. Perseus Books.
Aosved, A. C., & Long, P. J. (2006). Co-occurrence of rape myth acceptance, sexism, racism, homophobia, ageism, classism, and religious intolerance. Sex roles, 55(7), 481-492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9101-4
Baker, C. K., & Helm, S. (2011). Prevalence of intimate partner violence victimization and perpetration among youth in Hawai ‘i. Hawaii medical journal, 70(5), 92-96.
Barter, C., McCarry, M., Berridge, D., & Evans, K. (2009). Partner exploitation and violence in teenage intimate relationships. http://www.womenssupportproject.co.uk/userfiles/file/partner_exploitation_and_violence_report_wdf70129.pdf
Berkel, L. A., Furlong, A. N., Hickman, A. A., & Blue, E. L. (2005). A Qualitative Examination of Black College Women's Beliefs About Abuse in Relationships. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36(3), 283-290. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.36.3.283
Blanco, M. A. (2014). Implicaciones del uso de las redes sociales en el aumento de la violencia de género en adolescentes. Comunicación y Medios, 30, 124-141. https://doi.org/10.5354/0719-1529.2015.32375
Bonilla, E., Rivas, E., & Vázquez, J. J. (2017). Tolerancia y justificación de la violencia en relaciones de pareja adolescentes. Apuntes de Psicología, 35 (1), 55-61.
Borrajo, R., & Gámez-Guadix, M. (2015). Comportamientos, motivos y reacciones asociadas a la victimización del abuso online en el noviazgo: un análisis cualitativo. Revista de Victimología/Journal of Victimology, 2, 73-95. https://doi.org/10.12827/RVJV.2.04
Borrajo, E., & Gámez-Guadix, M. (2016). Abuso “online” en el noviazgo: relación con depresión, ansiedad y ajuste diádico. Psicología Conductual, 24(2), 221-235.
Borrajo, E., Gámez-Guadix, M., & Calvete, E. (2015). Justification beliefs of violence, myths about love and cyber dating abuse. Psicothema, 27(4), 327-333. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2015.59
Bosch, E. & Ferrer, V. A. (2000). La violencia de género: de cuestión privada a problema social. Psychosocial Intervention, 9(1), 7-19.
Bosch-Fiol, E., & Ferrer-Pérez, V. A. (2012). Nuevo mapa de los mitos sobre la violencia de género en el siglo XXI. Psicothema, 24(4), 548-554.
Brown, C. & Hegarty, K. (2018). Digital dating abuse measures: A critical review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 40, 44-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.03.003
Burke, S. C., Wallen, M., Vail-Smith, K., & Knox, D. (2011). Using technology to control intimate partners: An exploratory study of college undergraduates. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(3), 1162-1167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.12.010
Canto, J. M., Perles, F., & Martín, J. S. (2014). The role of right-wing authoritarianism, sexism and culture of honour in rape myths acceptance/El papel del autoritarismo de derechas, del sexismo y de la cultura del honor en la aceptación de los mitos sobre la violación. Revista de Psicología Social, 29(2), 296-318. https://doi.org/10.1080/02134748.2014.918822
Capaldi, D. M., Knoble, N. B., Shortt, J. W., & Kim, H. K. (2012). A systematic review of risk factors for intimate partner violence. Partner Abuse, 3, 231-280
Caro, C., & Monreal, M. C. (2017). Creencias del amor romántico y violencia de género. International Journal of Developmental and Educational Psychology, 2(1), 47-56. https://doi.org/10.17060/ijoadep.2017.n1.v2.917
Copp, J. E., Giordano, P. C., Longmore, M. A., & Manning, W. D. (2016). The development of attitudes toward intimate partner violence: An examination of key correlates among a sample of young adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/doi/pdf/10.1177/0886260516651311
Cutbush, S., Ashley, O. S., Kan, M. L., Hampton, J., & Hall, D.M. (2010). Electronic aggression among adolescent dating partners: demographic correlates and associations with other types of violence. https://www.rti.org/sites/default/files/resources/apha10_cutbush_poster.pdf
Deans, H., & Singh, M. (2017). Perpetrating cyber dating abuse: A brief report on the role of aggression, romantic jealousy and gender. Current Psychology, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9715-4
De la Peña, E.M., Ramos, E., Luzón, J.M., & Recio, P. (2011). Andalucía Detecta. Sexismo y Violencia de Género en la Juventud. https://www.observatoriodelainfancia.es/ficherosoia/documentos/3400_d_DETECTA_PREVIENE1.pdf
Delegación del Gobierno para la violencia de Género (2017). Diez formas de violencia de género digital. https://violenciagenero.igualdad.gob.es/laDelegacionInforma/2017/pdfs/DGVG_INFORMA_CAMPANA_VIOLENCIA_GENERO_DIGITAL.pdf
Delgado, C., & Gutiérrez, A. (2013). Percepción de la violencia de género en personas mayores. International Journal of Developmental and Educational Psychology, INFAD. Revista de Psicología, 2(1), 329-338.
Desmarais, S. L., Reeves, K. A., Nicholls, T. L., Telford, R. P., & Fiebert, M. S. (2012). Prevalence of physical violence in intimate relationships, Part 2: Rates of male and female perpetration. Partner Abuse, 3(2), 170-198. http://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.3.2.170
Dick, R. N., McCauley, H. L., Jones, K. A., Tancredi, D. J., Goldstein, S., Blackburn, S., Monasterio, E., James, L., Silverman, J.G., & Miller, E. (2014). Cyber dating abuse among teens using school-based health centers. Pediatrics, 134(6), e1560-e1567. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-0537
Durán, M., Campos-Romero, I., & Martínez-Pecino, R. (2014). Obstáculos en la comprensión de la violencia de género: Influencia del sexismo y la formación en género. Acción Psicológica, 11(2), 97-106. https://doi.org/10.5944/ap.11.2.14177
Durán, M., & Martínez-Pecino, R. (2015). Ciberacoso mediante teléfono móvil e Internet en las relaciones de noviazgo entre jóvenes. Comunicar, 22(44), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.3916/C44-2015-17
Echeburúa, E. & Redondo, S. (2010). ¿Por qué víctima es femenino y agresor es masculino?: la violencia contra la pareja y las agresiones sexuales. Pirámide
Escudero, A., González, D., Méndez, R., Naredo, C., Pleguezuelos, E., & Vaccaro, S. (2010). Informe del Grupo de Trabajo de Investigación sobre el Supuesto Síndrome de Alienación Parental. Ministerio de Igualdad.
Epstein-Ngo, Q. M., Roche, J. S., Walton, M. A., Zimmerman, M. A., Chermack, S. T., & Cunningham, R. M. (2014). Technology-delivered dating aggression: Risk and promotive factors and patterns of associations across violence types among high-risk youth. Violence and Gender, 1(3), 131-133. https://doi.org/10.1089/vio.2014.0018
Esquivel-Santoveña, E., & Dixon, L. (2012). Investigating the true rate of physical intimate partner violence: A review of nationally representative surveys. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17, 208-219.
Expósito, F., Moya, M.C., & Glick, P. (1998). Sexismo ambivalente: medición y correlatos. Revista de Psicología Social, 13(2), 159-169. https://doi.org/10.1174/021347498760350641
Ferrer, V. A., Bosch, E., & Navarro, C. (2010). Los mitos román ticos en España. Boletín de Psicología, 99, 7-31
Ferrer, V.A., Bosch, E., Ramis, M.C., Torres, E., & Navarro, C. (2006). La violencia contra las mujeres en la pareja: creencias y actitudes en estudiantes universitarios/as. Psicothema, 18(3), 359-366.
García-Díaz, V., Fernández-Feito, A., Bringas-Molleda, C., Rodríguez-Díaz, F. J., & Lana, A. (2020). Tolerance of intimate partner violence and sexist attitudes among health sciences students from three Spanish universities. Gaceta sanitaria, 34, 179-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaceta.2019.01.003
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 491-512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491
Glick, P., Diebold, J., Bailey-Werner, B., & Zhu, L. (1997). The two faces of Adam: ambivalent sexism and polarized attitudes toward women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(12), 1323-1334. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672972312009
Gracia, E., Rodriguez, C. M., & Lila, M. (2015). Preliminary evaluation of an analog procedure to assess acceptability of intimate partner violence against women: The partner violence acceptability movie task. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 15-67. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01567
Graña, J. L., & Cuenca, M. L. (2014). Prevalence of psychological and physical intimate partner aggression in Madrid (Spain): a dyadic analysis. Psicothema, 26(Número 3), 343-348. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2013.262
Herrera, A., Pina, A., Herrera, M. C., & Expósito, F. (2014). ¿Mito o realidad? ¿Influencia de la ideología en la percepción social del acoso sexual [Myth or Reality? Influence of Ideology in the Sexual Harassment Perception]. Anuario de Psicología Jurídica, 24, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apj.2014.07.002
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J.W. (2011). Electronic dating violence: A brief for educators and parents. Cyberbullying Research Center. https://cyberbullying.org/electronic_dating_violence_fact_sheet.pdf
Jabaloyas, C. (2015). Las TICs como factor de riesgo de la violencia en parejas adolescentes. Criminología y Sociedad, 4(5), 211-264.
Jaen-Cortés, C. I., Rivera-Aragón, S., Reidl-Martínez, L. M., & García-Méndez, M. (2017). Violencia de pareja a través de medios electrónicos en adolescentes mexicanos. Acta de Investigación Psicológica, 7(1), 2593-2605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aipprr.2017.01.001
Janos, E., & Espinosa, A. (2018). Sexismo ambivalente y su relación con la aceptación de mitos sobre la violencia sexual en una muestra de Lima. Revista de Investigación Psicológica, 19, 61-74.
Kellerman, I., Margolin, G., Borofsky, L. A., Baucom, B. R., & Iturralde, E. (2013). Electronic aggression among emerging adults: motivations and contextual factors. Emerging adulthood, 1(4), 293-304. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696813490159
Kunst, J. R., Bailey, A., Prendergast, C., & Gundersen, A. (2019). Sexism, rape myths and feminist identification explain gender differences in attitudes toward the# metoo social media campaign in two countries. Media Psychology, 22(5), 818-843. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2018.1532300
Lameiras, M., & Rodríguez, Y. (2003). Evaluación del sexismo ambivalente en estudiantes gallegos/as. Acción psicológica, 2(2), 131-136.
Leisring, P. A., & Giumetti, G. W. (2014). Sticks and stones may break my bones, but abusive text messages also hurt: Development and validation of the cyber psychological abuse scale. Partner Abuse, 5(3), 323-341. https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.5.3.323
Locke, L. M., & Richman, C. L. (1999). Attitudes toward domestic violence: Race and gender issues. Sex Roles, 40(3), 227-247.
Luken, V. M. (2015). Percepción de la violencia de género en la adolescencia y juventud. http://violenciagenero.igualdad.gob.es/violenciaEnCifras/estudios/investigaciones/2015/pdf/Libro20_Percepcion_Social_VG_.pdf
Lynn, M. R. (1986). Determination and quantification of content validity. Nursing Research, 35(6), 382–385. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006199-198611000-00017
Marganski, A., & Melander, L. (2018). Intimate partner violence victimization in the cyber and real world: examining the extent of cyber aggression experiences and its association with in-person dating violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(7), 1071-1095. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515614283
Martín-Fernández, M., Gracia, E., Marco, M., Vargas, V., Santirso, F. A., & Lila, M. (2018). Measuring acceptability of intimate partner violence against women: Development and validation of the A-IPVAW scale. European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 10(1), 26-34. https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2018a3
Martínez-Pecino, R., & Durán, M. (2019). I love you but I cyberbully you: the role of hostile sexism. Journal of interpersonal violence, 34(4), 812-825. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516645817
Marroquí, M., & Cervera, P. (2014). Interiorización de los falsos mitos del amor romántico en jóvenes. ReiDoCrea, 3(20), 142-146.
Masser, B., Viki, G. T., & Power, C. (2006). Hostile sexism and rape proclivity amongst men. Sex Roles, 54(7/8), 565-574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9022-2
Montenegro, S. (2013). Coeducación: Del ideal del amor romántico a la violencia de género [Trabajo Fin de Grado, Universidad La Rioja, Logroño, España]. https://biblioteca.unirioja.es/tfe_e/TFE000259.pdf
Muñiz, M., & Monreal, M. C. (2017). Violencia de pareja virtual y ajuste psicosocial en la adolescencia desde la perspectiva de género. International Journal of Developmental and Educational Psychology, 2(1), 115-124. https://doi.org/10.17060/ijodaep.2017.n1.v2.924
Muñoz, J. M., & Echeburúa, E. (2016). Diferentes modalidades de violencia en la relación de pareja: implicaciones para la evaluación psicológica forense en el contexto legal español. Anuario de Psicología Jurídica, 26(1), 2-12.
Peskin, M. F., Markham, C. M., Shegog, R., Temple, J. R., Baumler, E. R., Addy, R. C., Belinda, H., Cuccaro, P., Gabay, E. K., Thiel, M., & Tortolero, S. (2017). Prevalence and correlates of the perpetration of cyber dating abuse among early adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46(2), 358-375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0568-1
Peters, J. (2008). Measuring myths about domestic violence: Development and initial validation of the domestic violence myth acceptance scale. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 16(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926770801917780
Picard, P. (2007). Tech abuse in teen relationships. https://www.breakthecycle.org/sites/default/files/pdf/survey-lina-tech-2007.pdf
Reed, L. A., Tolman, R. M., & Ward, L. M. (2016). Snooping and Sexting: digital media as a context and tool for dating violence among college students. Violence Against Women, 22(13), 1556-1576. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801216630143
Reed, L. A., Tolman, R. M., & Ward, L. M. (2017). Gender matters: experiences and consequences of digital dating abuse victimization in adolescent dating relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 59, 79-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.05.015
Rodríguez, V., Sánchez, C., & Alonso, D. (2006). Creencias de adolescentes y jóvenes en torno a la violencia de género y las relaciones de pareja. Portularia, 6(2), 189-204.
Rodríguez, Y., & Alonso, P. (2015). Análisis de los discursos de los y las jóvenes sobre la violencia en las relaciones de pareja. Revista de Estudios e Investigación en Psicología y Educación, Extr.(2), 15-18. https://doi.org/10.17979/reipe.2015.0.02.235
Rodríguez-Castro, Y., Alonso-Ruido, P., Lameiras-Fernández, M., & Faílde-Garrido, J. M. (2018). Del" sexting" al cibercontrol en las relaciones de pareja de adolescentes españoles: análisis de sus argumentos. Revista latinoamericana de psicología, 50(3), 170-178 https://doi.org/10.14349/rlp.2018.v50.n3.4
Rodríguez-Domínguez, C., Durán, M., & Martínez-Pecino, R. (2018). Ciberagresores en el noviazgo adolescente y su relación con la violencia psicológica, el sexismo y los celos. Health and addictions/Salud y Drogas, 18(1),17-27. http://doi.org/10.21134/haaj.v18i1.329
Russell, B., & Trigg, K. (2004). Tolerance of sexual harassment: An examination of gender differences, ambivalent sexism, social dominance, and gender roles. Sex Roles, 50, 565-573. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000023075.32252.fd
Saldívar, G., Ramos, L. & Saltijeral, M. T. S. (2004). Validación de las escalas de aceptación de la violencia y de los mitos de violación en estudiantes universitarios. Salud Mental, 27(6), 40-49.
Sánchez-Hernández, M. D., Herrera-Enríquez, M. C., & Expósito, F. (2020). Controlling behaviors in couple relationships in the digital age: Acceptability of gender violence, sexism, and myths about romantic love. Psychosocial Intervention, 29(2), 67-81. https://doi.org/10.5093/pi2020a1
Schnurr, M. P., Mahatmya, D., & Basche, R. A. (2013). The role of dominance, cyber aggression perpetration, and gender on emerging adults' perpetration of intimate partner violence. Psychology of violence, 3(1), 70-83. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030601
Sugarman, D. B., & Frankel, S. L. (1996). Patriarchal ideology and wifeassault: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Family Violence, 11(1), 13-40.
Temple, J. R., Choi, H. J., Brem, M., Wolford-Clevenger, C., Stuart, G. L., Fleschler, M., & Elmquist, J. (2016). The temporal association between traditional and cyber dating abuse among adolescents. Journal of youth and adolescence, 45(2), 340-349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0380-3
Torres, C., Robles, J.M., & de Marco, S. (2014). El ciberacoso como forma de ejercer la violencia de género en la juventud: un riesgo en la sociedad de la información y del conocimiento. Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad.
Ubillos, S., Goiburu, E., Puente, A., Pizarro, J. P., & Echeburúa, E. (2017). Evaluación de pensamientos distorsionados sobre la mujer y la violencia de estudiantes vascoparlantes de enseñanzas medias, Revista de Psicodidáctica, 22(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1136-1034(17)30037-0
Van Ouytsel, J., Ponnet, K., & Walrave, M. (2018). Cyber dating abuse victimization among secondary school students from a lifestyle-routine activities theory perspective. Journal of interpersonal violence, 33(17), 2767-2776.
Viki, G. T., & Abrams, D. (2002). But she was unfaithful: Benevolent sexism and reactions to rape victims who violate traditional gender role expectations. Sex Roles, 47(5/6), 289-293.
Víllora, B., Navarro, R., & Yubero, S. (2019). Abuso online en el noviazgo y su relación con el abuso del móvil, la aceptación de la violencia y los mitos sobre el amor. Revista Suma Psicológica, 26(1), 46-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1136-1034(17)30037-0
Waltermaurer, E. (2012). Public justification of intimate partner violence: A review of the literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 13, 167-175. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838012447699
Watkins, L. E., Maldonado, R. C., & DiLillo, D. (2018). The cyber aggression in relationships scale: A new multidimensional measure of technology-based intimate partner aggression. Assessment, 25(5), 608-626. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191116665696
Yahner, J., Dank, M., Zweig, J. M., & Lachman, P. (2015). The co-occurrence of physical and cyber dating violence and bullying among teens. Journal of interpersonal violence, 30(7), 1079-1089. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514540324
Yela, C. (2003). La otra cara del amor: mitos, paradojas y problemas. Encuentros en psicología social, 1(2), 263-267.
Zweig, J. M., Dank, M., Yahner, J., & Lachman, P. (2013). The rate of cyber dating abuse among teens and how it relates to other forms of teen dating violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(7), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9922-8
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2021 Health and Addictions Journal/Revista Salud y Drogas

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors publishing in this journal agree to the journal's statement of ethical principles and to the following terms:
The rights of the published material shall belong to their respective authors. Articles published in HAAJ may be used under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International license, and may be read, copied, distributed, printed, searched, or linked to in the full text of this journal without prior permission from the publisher or author, provided that HAAJ and the authors are acknowledged and not used for commercial purposes.
Authors may include the work in institutional repositories or other publications as long as this journal is acknowledged and properly cited.
The HAAJ editorial team encourages authors to disseminate their published work through any means (conferences, classes, lectures, talks, etc.) and/or platforms (social networks, repositories, websites, etc.).
HAAJ follows the Core Practices of COPE (Committee on Publication Ethics).